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Priests and Priesthood in the Old Testament
1. In the Old Testament, was it only the family of Aaron that could be high priest or any Levite was eligible
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In the Old Testament, according to Mosaic Law, only the family of Aaron (a subgroup within the Levites) was eligible to serve as the High Priest.
Aaron, the brother of Moses, was the first to be appointed High Priest by God. His four sons, Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar, were also designated as priests (Exodus 28:1). However, after Nadab and Abihu died without leaving any sons (Leviticus 10:1-2), the high priesthood continued through the families of Eleazar and Ithamar.
The Levites, as a tribe, were set aside to serve in the tabernacle (later the temple), but not all Levites were priests. The duties of the Levites included assisting the priests in their duties, taking care of the tabernacle/temple and its furnishings, and performing duties associated with public worship. But the highest spiritual duties – such as offering sacrifices and making atonement for the people of Israel – were reserved exclusively for the priests from the line of Aaron.
2. Could anyone outside the kind of Aaron be a priest though not the high priest
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The priesthood, according to the Old Testament, was specifically set aside for the tribe of Levi, and within that tribe, the descendants of Aaron were assigned the role of priests.
The tribe of Levi was chosen by God to serve in religious roles for the Israelites, but there were distinctions within the tribe. The sons of Aaron were designated as the priests who could perform the most sacred duties such as offering sacrifices, burning incense, and performing other rituals within the sanctuary or Holy of Holies. Aaron’s descendants were, in a sense, the priestly elite.
Other Levites, those not from Aaron’s line, were given religious roles as well, but these roles were less prestigious and did not involve the most sacred duties. Their tasks included the care and transport of the Tabernacle and its furnishings, playing music in worship, serving as gatekeepers, and assisting the Aaronic priests as needed.
However, it should be noted that there were instances in the Bible where non-Levites, and even non-Israelites, were used by God in priestly roles. An example is Melchizedek, the king of Salem, who was described as a “priest of God Most High” in Genesis 14:18-20. But these instances are exceptions, and they do not change the general rule set out in the Mosaic Law regarding the Levitical and Aaronic priesthoods.
3. Did the Levites have an inheritance of land? Did they have their own cities?
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The tribe of Levi did not receive a traditional land inheritance like the other tribes of Israel when the Israelites entered the Promised Land under the leadership of Joshua. The reasoning for this was stated in the book of Numbers:
“The Lord said to Aaron, ‘You will have no inheritance in their land, nor will you have any share among them; I am your share and your inheritance among the Israelites’” (Numbers 18:20 NIV).
However, the Levites were given certain cities to live in and the surrounding pasturelands for their animals. These were known as the Levitical cities. There were 48 of these cities scattered among the other tribes’ territories, and six of them also served as Cities of Refuge where someone who had accidentally killed another person could seek asylum (Numbers 35:6-7).
Despite not having their own tribal land, the Levites were given the privilege of serving the Lord in the religious life of the community. Their needs were taken care of through the offerings given by the other Israelites, including a tithe of the produce of the land (Numbers 18:21). They were to devote their lives to spiritual matters, serving at the Tabernacle and later the Temple, rather than focusing on agricultural or territorial issues.
4. Apart from the temple, were there other physical places of worship scattered through the country, at which the sons of Aaron served as priests ?
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Initially, the central place of worship for the Israelites was the Tabernacle, a movable tent-like structure that housed the Ark of the Covenant. Once King Solomon built the Temple in Jerusalem, it became the primary location for religious activities, including the offering of sacrifices. It was here that the sons of Aaron served as priests.
The Old Testament law prescribed centralized worship for Israel (Deuteronomy 12:5-7), meaning that formal sacrifices and certain other religious observances were to take place at a designated location – first the Tabernacle, and later the Temple in Jerusalem. This system was designed to maintain the purity of worship and to prevent the Israelites from adopting the practices of the pagan nations around them.
However, in practice, there were times when the Israelites set up other places of worship, often referred to as “high places”. These locations were not prescribed by the Mosaic Law and were often associated with idolatrous worship. During periods of religious reform, such as during the reign of King Hezekiah and King Josiah, these high places were torn down in an attempt to bring the people back to worshipping God at the Temple in Jerusalem (2 Kings 18:4, 23:8-9).
There were also local synagogues that started to appear during the Babylonian Exile and became common in the Second Temple period. These served as local centers for teaching, prayer, and community life but not for sacrifices. The formal sacrificial system was still centralized in the Temple.
So, while there were other physical places of worship in ancient Israel, the sons of Aaron were primarily associated with the service of the Tabernacle and later the Temple.
5. How and when did the term synagogue originate and in which authority?
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The term “synagogue” comes from the Greek “synagoge,” which means “assembly” or “gathering.” The Greek term was used in the Septuagint, an ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament, to translate various Hebrew words that referred to community gatherings.
The origin of synagogues as we know them today is not completely clear, as they are not explicitly mentioned in the Old Testament and only appear in historical records during the period of the Second Temple (516 BC - 70 AD), after the Babylonian exile. The Babylonian exile, which began in 586 BC, was a significant turning point for the Jewish people, as they were forced to find new ways of maintaining their religious identity while living in a foreign land, away from the Jerusalem Temple.
It seems that during this time, they developed institutions that would later evolve into synagogues, where they could gather to hear the Torah read and explained, to pray, and to discuss community affairs. Thus, synagogues originated not from a specific decree or authority, but as a communal response to the challenges faced during the exile.
By the time of Jesus, synagogues were well established as centers for Jewish worship and community life. The New Testament records Jesus teaching in synagogues in various towns (e.g., Mark 1:21, Luke 4:16).
However, the synagogue was always seen as complementary to the Temple in Jerusalem, which remained the center of Jewish religious life until its destruction by the Romans in 70 AD. After this event, the synagogue became even more crucial as the focal point of Jewish worship and community.
6. Since the destruction of the temple in 70 AD, has there been any attempt to rebuild it? What’s the traditional position of the Jews in this respect
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The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD by the Romans was a significant event in Jewish history, marking the end of a central place of worship and sacrifice. Since then, there have been discussions and speculations, and at times even plans, about rebuilding the Temple, but no concrete steps have been taken to do so.
Several factors complicate the possibility of rebuilding the Temple:
- Religious considerations: Jewish law contains specific requirements for the Temple and its rituals, many of which would be difficult or impossible to meet today. For instance, those involved in the construction and operation of the Temple must be ritually pure, a condition that is extremely difficult to ensure according to traditional Jewish law without the existence of a Red Heifer needed for purification.
- Political considerations: The Temple Mount, where the First and Second Temples stood, is currently home to the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque, two of the most sacred sites in Islam. Any attempt to change the status quo at this sensitive location could lead to serious political and religious conflict.
The traditional position among Jews varies widely:
- Many Orthodox Jews believe that the Temple will be rebuilt when the Messiah comes, and they leave this in God’s hands. Prayers for the restoration of the Temple are included in the traditional Jewish liturgy.
- Reform Judaism and many liberal Jewish movements do not focus on the physical rebuilding of the Temple. They view their places of worship, whether synagogues or temples, as fulfilling the role of the ancient Temple.
- There are also a small number of activist groups who advocate for the immediate rebuilding of the Temple, but they represent a minority within the Jewish community.
As of my knowledge cutoff in September 2021, no successful attempts to rebuild the Temple have been made.
Islamic occupation of Jewish temple site
7. Why did Islam cite the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque on the exact site of the temple of another religion
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The establishment of the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem reflects the historical, religious, and political complexities of the region.
The Temple Mount is one of the most important religious sites in the Old City of Jerusalem. It has been venerated as a holy site in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. According to Jewish tradition, it is the location of both the First and Second Temples. For Christians, it has significant associations with figures and events in the life of Jesus. And for Muslims, it is believed to be the place where the Prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven during the Night Journey, as described in the Quran in Surah Isra (17:1).
When Muslim armies captured Jerusalem in the 7th century, the Umayyad Caliphate decided to build a magnificent structure, the Dome of the Rock, on the Temple Mount. The Al-Aqsa Mosque was also built nearby. These structures were intended to symbolize the presence and prestige of Islam in a city that was sacred to all three Abrahamic religions.
It’s also important to note that it was not uncommon in the ancient world for conquerors to establish their own places of worship on the sites of those they had conquered, both as a symbol of their victory and as a way of appropriating the sanctity of the location. The establishment of the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount can be understood in this context as well.
However, the presence of these Islamic structures on the Temple Mount has been a point of religious and political tension over the centuries, and the site continues to be a flashpoint for conflict in the region.
8. If the the Dome of the Rock is not a mosque, what is it and what is it used for? How close is it to the Al-Aqsa Mosque and how many persons can each take?
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The Dome of the Rock, also known as Qubbat as-Sakhrah in Arabic, is an Islamic shrine located on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. While it is often mistakenly referred to as a mosque, it is not a mosque in the traditional sense. It doesn’t host the five daily Muslim prayers regularly but is used for special occasions and is a major site of Islamic pilgrimage.
The primary significance of the Dome of the Rock is its location. It is believed to stand over the rock from which the Prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven during the Night Journey, accompanied by the angel Gabriel.
The interior of the Dome of the Rock features a large rock, which gives the structure its name. The rock is believed to have various religious significances in Islamic, Jewish, and Christian traditions. In the Islamic tradition, the Prophet Muhammad is said to have been transported from the Sacred Mosque in Mecca to the “Farthest Mosque” before ascending to heaven, and this journey is commemorated by the Dome of the Rock and the nearby Al-Aqsa Mosque.
The Al-Aqsa Mosque is located approximately 150 meters away from the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount. It is the third holiest site in Islam, after Mecca and Medina, and is a major center for Muslim worship and community life.
As of my knowledge cut-off in September 2021, the Al-Aqsa Mosque can accommodate around 5,000 worshippers inside the building, but many thousands more can pray in the courtyards of the Temple Mount, especially during major Islamic festivals. The capacity of the Dome of the Rock is less clear, as its primary function is not to accommodate large congregations for prayer. The size of the structure is much smaller than Al-Aqsa Mosque, and its focus is the sacred rock and the ornate decoration of the interior rather than accommodating a large number of worshippers.
Keep in mind that the capacity might have changed as I’m providing the information as of 2021, and the current status could be different. Please verify from a reliable recent source.
9. You said the Prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven during the Night Journey, accompanied by the angel Gabriel. What was this night journey about? From where to where? By who and why? For how long was the Prophet Muhammad in heaven before coming back? (Since he did die on earth and was buried). Were there any witnesses to this ascension to heaven?
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The Night Journey, also known as Isra and Mi’raj in Arabic, is one of the most significant events in the Islamic tradition.
The event is referenced in the Quran in Surah Al-Isra (17:1), though the text does not provide a detailed account. Further details are given in various Hadith (sayings and actions of Prophet Muhammad), which have been passed down through generations.
According to Islamic tradition, the Prophet Muhammad was carried by a supernatural steed known as Buraq from the Kaaba in Mecca to the “Farthest Mosque,” which is traditionally interpreted as the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. This part of the journey is known as Isra.
Upon reaching Jerusalem, Muhammad is said to have led a prayer with various prophets who were assembled for him, establishing his role as the final prophet in the Islamic tradition. Then, accompanied by the angel Gabriel (Jibril in Arabic), he ascended through the seven heavens, meeting different prophets at each level (this is the Mi’raj), until he reached the presence of Allah (God).
The purpose of the journey was both to comfort Muhammad during a difficult period of his prophethood and to show him various signs of God’s greatness and mercy. It confirmed his role as the last Prophet and allowed him to negotiate the number of daily prayers (Salat) Muslims should perform.
There is no specific duration mentioned for how long Muhammad was in heaven. As this was a spiritual, mystical event, it’s understood that earthly concepts of time may not apply.
As for witnesses, the event of Isra and Mi’raj was a personal experience for Prophet Muhammad, so there were no direct witnesses to his journey. When he told others about it, some people in Mecca rejected the story due to its miraculous nature, but his followers, seeing consistency in his message and his truthfulness, accepted it as a miracle. Muhammad described details about Jerusalem (a place he hadn’t visited before according to historical accounts) and his path there, which were confirmed by external sources, giving credibility to his account among his followers.
10. How long before his death did this take place?
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The exact date of the Isra and Mi’raj, Prophet Muhammad’s Night Journey and Ascension, is not explicitly mentioned in the Islamic sources. However, it is traditionally believed to have occurred around the year 621, about two years before the Prophet’s migration (Hijrah) from Mecca to Medina, and approximately 9-10 years before his death in 632.
This event is commemorated in the Islamic calendar on the 27th day of the month of Rajab, although there is no consensus on this date among scholars. It’s important to note that the Islamic calendar is lunar, so it doesn’t align perfectly with the Gregorian (western) calendar.
The timing of this event was significant as it occurred during a period of great difficulty and persecution for the Prophet Muhammad and the early Muslim community in Mecca. The journey of Isra and Mi’raj was seen as a source of comfort and affirmation for the Prophet Muhammad’s mission.
11. Why was there a migration from Mecca to Medina? How many people were involved? Was it a one way or a return journey?
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The migration of Prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina, known as the Hijrah, is a pivotal event in Islamic history. The migration took place in 622 AD and marks the start of the Islamic calendar.
In the years leading up to the Hijrah, Prophet Muhammad and the early Muslim community in Mecca faced increasing persecution from the Quraysh, the dominant tribe in Mecca that controlled the Kaaba, a pre-Islamic pilgrimage site that the Quraysh had filled with idols. The Quraysh opposed Muhammad’s monotheistic teachings and social reforms, seeing them as a threat to their religious, social, and economic status.
After more than a decade of preaching in Mecca, and several years of severe persecution, a delegation from the city of Yathrib (later renamed Medina, or “the city” of the Prophet) came to Prophet Muhammad. They accepted Islam and invited him to come to their city to serve as a leader and peacemaker among its tribes. Seeing an opportunity for a safer environment in which Islam could grow, Muhammad accepted their offer and instructed his followers to migrate to Medina.
Prophet Muhammad himself, along with his close companion Abu Bakr, left Mecca some time after the initial wave of migrants. They managed to evade the Quraysh leaders who had planned to assassinate Muhammad. The journey was perilous, but they finally reached Medina safely.
The number of Muslims involved in the Hijrah is not precisely known, but it is estimated to have been a few hundred. Over time, the Muslim community in Medina grew as more people converted to Islam.
The Hijrah was intended as a permanent move, not a round-trip journey. Although Prophet Muhammad and the Muslims later returned to Mecca for religious purposes like the Hajj (pilgrimage), and eventually took control of the city, Medina remained the political and cultural center of the early Muslim community during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad.
12. Why and how did the pre Islamic and idolatrous Mecca become a centre for Islamic religious purposes like the Hajj (pilgrimage), rather than Medina that had fully accepted Islam by their own volition? What was the basis of the special interest in Mecca that rejected Islam?
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Mecca’s significance in Islam predates the birth of the Prophet Muhammad and the emergence of Islam in the 7th century. According to Islamic belief, the Kaaba, the cubic building at the center of Mecca’s main mosque (Masjid al-Haram), was originally built by Prophet Abraham (Ibrahim in Arabic) and his son Ishmael (Isma’il in Arabic) as a house of monotheistic worship. It’s believed to be the first house of worship designated for humanity to worship the One God (Allah in Arabic).
However, by the time of Muhammad, the Kaaba had been filled with idols by the Quraysh tribe and was used for polytheistic worship. Despite this, the Kaaba and the city of Mecca retained their status as a major pilgrimage center.
When Prophet Muhammad began preaching monotheism, he emphasized the Abrahamic roots of his message and stressed the need to return the Kaaba to its original purpose as a center of monotheistic worship. After the Muslim community had grown stronger in Medina, Muhammad and his followers sought to return to Mecca to perform the pilgrimage.
The turning point came in 628 AD with the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, in which the Muslims and the Quraysh agreed to a truce. One of the terms of this treaty was that the Muslims would be allowed to return to Mecca for pilgrimage.
Eventually, in 630 AD, Prophet Muhammad and his followers peacefully entered and took control of Mecca. One of his first actions was to cleanse the Kaaba of its idols and rededicate it to the worship of Allah alone. This event marked the return of Mecca to its status as a monotheistic pilgrimage center, and the city has remained a central site of Islamic worship ever since. The annual Hajj pilgrimage, one of the Five Pillars of Islam, involves several rites performed in and around the Kaaba and the city of Mecca.
So, while Medina holds a special place in Islamic history and tradition as the city that welcomed the Prophet and his followers and served as the cradle of the early Muslim community, Mecca’s status as the primary religious center of Islam is deeply rooted in the religion’s monotheistic, Abrahamic foundations.
13. Who were the occupants of Jerusalem and what was on the Temple Mount during the life of Mohamed
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During the time of Muhammad in the 7th century, Jerusalem was part of the Byzantine Empire, which was Christian. The population of the city would have been diverse, reflecting its status as a significant city in a major empire and a site of importance for multiple religious groups. The majority of its inhabitants were likely Christian, but there were also significant Jewish and Samaritan populations.
As for the Temple Mount, it’s important to note that the Second Jewish Temple, which had once stood on the site, was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD, centuries before Muhammad’s time. After the destruction of the Second Temple, the site lay in ruins for a period of time, and under Roman rule, a temple dedicated to Jupiter was built there as part of the Roman practice of establishing their own religious sites in conquered territories.
When Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire in the 4th century, Jerusalem and its religious sites underwent significant changes. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, believed to be the site of Jesus’ crucifixion and resurrection, was built during this period.
The exact status of the Temple Mount during the time of Muhammad isn’t clear. Some sources suggest it may have been used as a garbage dump, perhaps as a deliberate insult to the Jewish faith. Other sources suggest that it was largely abandoned. There’s no consensus among historians, and the lack of archaeological work on the Temple Mount makes it difficult to say for certain.
In the centuries following Muhammad’s death, the Islamic Umayyad Caliphate controlled Jerusalem, and it was during this period that the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock were built on the Temple Mount, establishing the site’s significance in Islam.
14. Where is Mohamed buried and who succeeded him as leader of Islam? How was this successor chosen and by who?
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Prophet Muhammad is buried in the city of Medina in Saudi Arabia. His tomb is located in Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (the Prophet’s Mosque), one of the holiest sites in Islam.
After Muhammad’s death in 632 AD, his close companion and father-in-law Abu Bakr was chosen as his successor, becoming the first Caliph (leader) of the Muslim community, marking the beginning of the Rashidun Caliphate. This period is regarded as a significant era in Islamic history, as the Caliphs who ruled were direct companions of Prophet Muhammad.
The choice of Abu Bakr as the first Caliph was not without controversy, however. Upon the Prophet’s death, a group of his companions met in a place called Saqifah to discuss the issue of succession. Abu Bakr was nominated by another companion, Umar ibn al-Khattab, and was accepted by those present at the meeting.
However, this meeting and decision happened quite hastily, and not all of the Prophet’s companions were present or even aware of it, which led to disputes. Some, particularly the Prophet’s cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib, believed that the Prophet’s family, the Banu Hashim, had a stronger claim to leadership. This disagreement sowed the seeds for what would eventually become the major split in Islam between Sunni and Shia Muslims.
Sunni Muslims believe that Abu Bakr was rightly chosen as the first Caliph and follow the tradition of the four “Rightly Guided Caliphs” (Rashidun) — Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali.
On the other hand, Shia Muslims believe that Ali was the rightful first successor to Prophet Muhammad, considering him and his descendants as the rightful leaders of the Muslim community. This division between Sunni and Shia is one of the longest-lasting and most significant in Islamic history.